Literacy in Amazonian Peru

Literacy in Amazonian Perú:

Teaching in the Community of San Pedro de Mangua, Loreto, Perú

A single row of thatch roofs houses connected by well worn footpaths line the thin strip of land between the Amazon rainforest and the Napo River in San Pedro de Mangua, Perú. Across the river, the chacras (fields) yield yuca (root vegetable) and plátanos (plantains). The river between the community and the fields is a multipurpose source of fish, drinking water, and transportation.

San Pedro is a true community. People care for their neighbors, no one worries about their children being abducted on the way to school, and there is no hyper materialism, liked that inflicted on many individuals in American culture. There is an understanding of the connection to the earth as an entity which provides sustenance. At first glance, the community may seem like an isolated time capsule of a bucolic life from the past, but with the growing presence of globalization, the needs of the community are quickly changing and the agricultural lifestyle is threatened by an invasive industrial economy.

Many young people in San Pedro say they want to leave the rural communities to work in the city, however, many of them inevitably stay in their communities since there is often no other option. My host mom told me she and her husband decided to move to San Pedro in order for their children to have the opportunity to go to secondary school.

Truly, the only way to develop a life outside of the rural communities is to finish secondary school and go on to university or a vocational school. Taking this cultural trend into account, I ask myself, “What is the goal of literacy? Should literacy be a tool used only to leave the rural lifestyle behind?” For some, this may be the objective of literacy, however, I think literacy can further strengthen the sense of identity and improve the community through a grassroots mobilization. As education philosopher Paulo Freire writes in 1970:

“In fact, those who, in learning to read and write, come to a new awareness of selfhood and begin to look critically at the social situation in which they find themselves, often take the initiative in acting to transform the society that has denied them this opportunity of participation. Education is once again a subversive force.”

The emergence and pervasiveness of the global market makes education all the more important since it promises to liberate and empower people and communities. Imposition of outsider religious and social beliefs has altered the culture in Amazonian Perú. For example, most communities used to have a plethora natural healers like curanderos (healers), parteras (midwives), and sobadores (bonesetters). With outside influence denouncing many of these useful cultural practices, many communities are left without ways to care for themselves.

Today, the people of the Amazon region are exploited by conflicts over resources like oil and lumber which are fueled by the “war on drugs” and allegiances between U.S. corporations and Peruvian companies. This mangled web of national and international forces continues to dispossess the people economically and educationally. As a result, I believe Freire’s assertion that literacy education can help people learn about what is happening to them in order to empower them.

Literacy should not simply be seen as a way out of the rural life, rather it should be used as a tool to prevent further resource depletion and violation against indigenous cultures. For example, the trash problem that now exists in many Amazon communities did not exist in the past, when local cultural practices reigned. It used to be that all prepared food was wrapped in a giant leaf and after use was discarded; the wrapping would bio-degrade. Now plastics and batteries make their way into the communities and people discard them in the same way, but the plastic and metal materials will never bio-degrade. New solutions and understanding of these new waste products is necessary for the people’s survival. The advent of globalization without education suppresses the quality of life for communities like San Pedro. Literacy education empowers people to understand issues, like trash management, so that they can initiate positive change for themselves and their environment. It’s important to note, that literacy is not a way out of a rural lifestyle; it is a way to understand the community’s connections with the global marketplace.

I had the opportunity to join the wonderful community of San Pedro for a summer as an elementary school teacher. I felt safe and accepted in the community and fell in love with the people, the environment, and the lifestyle. It was an eye-opening experience to observe the education system during a time when literacy has truly become a crucial aspect in this community. The most poignant discovery I made was to understand how power struggles between the masses and the government are manifested in the lack of funding for rural public schools, the absence of teacher support and training programs, and centralism which all contribute to unequal distribution of literacy education throughout the country, especially in the Amazon region.

After two months of working with the students and teachers in San Pedro, I left with many mixed emotions. My feelings about the politics surrounding education are complex. I recognize that as globalization continues to expand to all parts of the world, there is now more than ever a need to promote culturally applicable literacy programs. In Perú, these programs should be designed specifically to meet the needs of different regions of the country. That is, the national curriculum designed by the Ministry of Education has no applicability in the Amazon region.

The (Other) War for Oil

The (Other) War for Oil:

Dispossession and Violence in the Amazon River Basin

In the global market, the corporate world obtains resources through dispossession: that is, corporations take from local people what is rightfully theirs. There are endless examples of foreign companies exploiting, often violently, indigenous peoples who happen to live in resource hotbeds. It seems that in the global market, resources and profit are more important than human integrity or cultural preservation. The Amazon region is a perfect example of how the global market is employing dispossession and exploitation for capital gain. The Amazon River basin is home to the world’s highest concentration of natural bio-diversity; not to mention lumber, gold, and oil.

I read an article a couple of days ago titled “Ataque a Indígenas” (Attack on Indigenous people) released by the BBC. The article recounts a massacre of 15 Waorani people. The Waorani people live in and around the Yasuní National park in Ecuador, and recently had tried to detain illegal loggers who trespassed in the area. The logger detainees aggressively resisted the people’s right to protect their land and its recourses. The loggers killed 15 women, men, and children by decapitation. This atrocious violence is sadly familiar in the region, as the surrounding area is rich in valuable lumbers and the oil reserve could potentially yield over 1,000,000 barrels. (BBC Mundo).

This case is certainly not isolated, as much of the felled lumber in Ecuador is illegal, but Ecuadorian police say that it is simply impossible to patrol theses areas. In thinking about the violent dispossession exemplified in this story, and other similar cases, I reflect not only one the causes of such atrocities but also on the brutal loss of human life and systematic oppression in the region. There is a larger structure in place here that perpetuates this situation, and simply stated: it is a war for resources. Oil drilling and processing, timbering, and crop spraying for the “war on drugs,” are rapidly destroying virgin forest and the people who live there. Unregulated pursuit of oil, lumber and other resources in the region is destroying the culture, its people, and not to mention the environmental integrity of the region.

Working in the Amazon River basin this past summer, it became quite apparent to me that the global market has indeed penetrated the region. The fable of the mysterious and isolated Amazon is a lie that disseminates ignorance about what is really happening in the region, and also perpetuates exoticism of the people and the culture. I saw that the daily passing of lumber barges quickly eroded the shoreline of the river and it tributaries while rocking the small boats of people fishing, washing clothes, or crossing the river to farm. Theses subtle changes and annoyances in daily life reflect the much bigger problem at hand. Seeing the piles of lumber stacked atop a ship spewing black smog into the pure air made me feel completely disheartened. I wondered about the lives of the people working in the industry, wondered where that lumber would eventually end up, and consequently felt shame and embarrassment for being a part of the global market that is so quickly alerting the world.

The recent massacre of the 15 Waorani people is not an isolated case, nor does this problem have a simple solution. The problem is that many corporations that come into the Amazon region form strong alliances and business partnerships with the government owned industries, freeing these corporations from regulations. It is an entangled relationship. As corporations profit on low operational costs, many governments in the Amazon region have developed a strong dependency on the outsider investment. The government, under the pressure of their reliance on foreign investors, often develops laws to protect unlimited resource extraction. However, there is little legislation protecting the rights and lives of the people who live in the Amazon River basin.

Unlike the arguments in support of a free market, these corporations actually do more to harm than good for the people in the Amazon River Basin. In fact, since the commencement of commercial oil activity in 1967, the overall number of people living in poverty in Ecuador has actually gone up from 47%-67%, while 45% of Ecuador’s export income comes from oil (Kimerling 62). Looking at the numbers, there is no denying that the quality of life in the region decreases while the corporations’ profits increase.

The recent Waorani massacre reminds us of the direct brutality that these industries bring into the region, but oppression comes in other forms as well. These industries bring pipe-lines that require mass deforestation and drilling that pollutes ground water and food sources. People and entire communities working for these companies also experienced a severance from a sustainable lifestyle. For example, Chevron-Texaco operating in the Amazon produces five million gallons of toxic waste leaking into the groundwater everyday (Kimerling 64). Various on-going class action law suits have been filed, none of them resulting in Chevron-Texaco initiating any clean-up or changing their operational procedures. In the midst of all the environmental destruction and human rights violations in the name of profit, Chevron-Texaco has earned a total thirty billion dollars in profit in Ecuador alone (Amazon Defense Coalition 2). In this case, the oil extraction and pursuit of capital yields results more like that of a war than the results promised by the free market.

Resource depletion in the Amazon region exemplifies how globalization and multi-national corporations run unchecked destroying human lives and the environmental condition of our planet. The solution lies in the hand of an informed public to reduce consumer needs for such resources, demand legislation for fair business practices, and to promote an empowered voice of the peoples living in the Amazon River basin.

References

Amazon Defense Coalition. “Chevron’s Dirty Business in Ecuador: 13 Examples That

Expose a Corporate Cover-Up.” Published report. 2006.

“Ataque A Indígenas.” BBC Mundo. http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/latin_america/

newsid7245000/7245354.stm. Accessed February 14, 2008.

Kimerling, Judith. “Oil, Lawlessness and Indigenous Struggles in Ecuador’s Oriente.”

Green Guerrillas. Nottingham: Russell Press, 1996. 61-73.

Drug Use Abroad

Drug Use Abroad:

Gateways to New Experiences, Uncharted Consequences, and Cultural Exploitation

You’re a student abroad, living new and different experiences, expanding your definition of the world and its people; so when the opportunity presents itself to take part in the drug culture, do you puff or pass? Where can students draw the line between keeping an open mind and risky activity?
The culturally informed traveler should ask him or herself a series of questions:

• ‘What is the cultural norm in this situation?
• What are the possible dangers and consequences of this?
  
• What impact does this particular substance have on the people, culture, worker’s rights, or the economy?
  
• Will this experience bring me closer to the culture or push me away?’

Participating in a tradition or practice involving drugs has the potential to bring one closer to the core of cultural standards, but as an outsider, it can also be seen as exploitative, and moreover, potentially dangerous. Knowing the risks and possible consequences related to any particular substance are important in making an informed decision about drinking or drug use abroad. Every study abroad handbook warns students about drugs abroad, but never really divulge the details for these concerns.
In my experience, the cultural norms and one’s own personal comfort level have much to do with making informed decisions while abroad. That said, and because this article is public forum, my experiences abroad have also taught me that one certainly does not want to find him or herself in a situation where authorities become involved in a drug experience abroad. As a foreigner, travelers give up many of the rights that may be legally guaranteed in the States, like due process and protection from police brutality or bribery. The bottom line is there is a risk factor any time travelers participate in illegal activity.
Students need to learn the cultural norms for both young adults and the overall culture, as these two norms often tend to diverge. For example, I was talking to some of my friends who studied abroad in mainland Europe and also in the British Isles, where they experienced a very relaxed standard for drinking in the streets and city parks, a practice that is not legal in the States. Generally, this is something young adults and students are permitted to do, although it is technically illegal in many European nations. If the drinking is kept relatively tame, the police tend to look the other way. Even though this is a culturally accepted practice, students should be well informed that there is still potential for legal trouble and personal safety concerns.

In addition to personal and legal dangers these decisions may have, there is also another factor to consider: cultural exploitation. I am talking of course about drug tourism. Where can a student draw the line between exploring a culture and exploiting a tradition? As ceremonial drugs are a part of certain cultures in varied regions, having these experiences has the potential to bring one closer to the beliefs and traditions of the society. However, I think more often than not, tourists are focused on the drug and not on exploring the cultural roots of the experience.
For example, in the Amazon region there is a sacred ceremony based on the guided consumption of the hallucinogenic ayahuasca plant. The ayahuasca plant and accompanying ceremony is a very sacred tradition in shamanistic healing, a ceremony that demands much respect and preparation. I talked to one shaman who told me he would not conduct the ceremony unless the recipient lived with him for at least fifteen days, meditating, reflecting, and keeping a special purifying diet in preparation for the ceremony. Clearly, there are still many true shamans who take the practice very seriously.
Unfortunately, walking around the city of Iquitos, it becomes quite apparent that this ceremony is being exploited farther than its intended use. One can find bottled ayahuasca vended in the open air markets and the streets are littered with advertisements for ayahuasca journeys with a shaman. Interestingly enough, these advertisements are generally next to, or a part of, eco-tourism advertisements. The problem is that this very potent drug is not meant to be taken recreationally; it can be very dangerous if not administered by a true master of the holistic spiritual and healing arts.
When I was in Iquitos, there were reports in the newspaper of female tourists being violated while under the influence of the drug. Other consequences include simply becoming violently ill for six to twenty-four hours after ingestion. In this particular case, there is not much risk of being arrested or getting in trouble with the law, but there are personal safety concerns to consider in addition to the exploitation of a religious tradition. On the other hand, this specific aspect of the culture may be worth exploring for the more adventurous and more prepared traveler. It can reveal an aspect of the religion and culture of the Amazon region not available in readings or tours. If treated with respect and caution, there are some traditions that may be learning experiences for travelers.
With all the personal growth and expanding experiences abroad, many students abroad have a more relaxed view on drinking and drug use, but there is a very fine and somewhat blurry line between expanding ones mind and poor decision making. Even in this mind frame, students still have to consider the consequences of being ‘caught in the act.’ Ask yourself, ‘what rights do I have as a foreigner in this country?’
Observing local culture and simply discussing theses issues before hand will be helpful to making an informed decision. Understanding the cultural norms, the potential risks, as well as the laws and legal system of the host country will surely inspire informed decision making while abroad.

Concepts of Death in Cultural Models

Concepts of Death in Cultural Models:
The value of pondering issues of death, dying, and the dead at home and abroad

On a sunny Michigan winter day, I wandered through an old cemetery in Kalamazoo. I was calmed by the rolling hills and the icicles hanging from the ancient trees. The grand old oaks cast shadows over the cold gray slabs marking final resting places. It is a peaceful and beautiful respite in the busy city, a sign of respect and honor to the deceased. I used to live next door to this cemetery, and I was always a little puzzled when people asked if it frightened to live next to a burial ground.

I don’t see cemeteries as so macabre; older cemeteries in the Midwest provide a sanctuary from traffic, shopping malls, and miles of concrete. Our relation to death and dying, and the practice of burying the dead, reflects a part of our cultural values and our history. In the Judeo-Christian thought, interment is traditionally seen as a way of retuning what once came from the earth back into the natural cycle. Now at funerals, they don’t even let the family stay to see their loved ones buried. In the way our culture has become more separated from dealing with death, I think we have developed a more dualistic and more fearful interpretation of this common human experience.

On a practically dull Saturday evening, I pondered these concepts of death as I roamed down the horror isle at the local video store. I realized that it is no wonder Americans are so fearful of death. The entertainment industry’s plenitude of gore and horror movies is absolutely astounding. Personally, I have never taken interest in this genre, so I was shocked to see the gruesomeness of even the covers of these films. Our entertainment media portrays death as something brutal, frightening, and well, horrifying. That is not to say that gore only exists in entertainment, one has only to turn on the news to see frightening images of death. However, I still have to ask myself why this genre of films has become so popular in the States. What does our fear of graveyards, our infatuation with ghost stories, and the overwhelming popularity of horror films say about our culture? Does the horror of death represented in entertainment simply reflect our own fears of dying?

I discussed these issues with a professor of mine who teaches a unit on death and dying in her health class. She believes that our culture idealizes the success of the individual and that we fear death as a failure. Obviously, varied religious and cultural backgrounds all contribute to the American identity, yet our relation to death and dying steams from a somewhat unified cultural value. We see death in a very dualistic manner, death is seen not a transition or a change, as it seen in other ideological models, death is the opposite if life and it is associated with all things negative.

Death is a common human experience and the way a society deals with this topic reveals much about the religious and cultural values of the region. This is an intriguing subject for engaged travelers to consider. I interviewed students who studied abroad in various Eastern countries, like Thailand and India, where the relation to death and dying is quite different from the Western perspective. The strong influence of Hinduism and Buddhism in the area creates a less dualistic view of death, in which it is seen as only a stage in life, not necessarily an end to it.

In México, a mix of pre-colonial indigenous beliefs and Catholicism produces a very interesting relation to the dead through el dia de los muertos (day of the day). On November first and second, the barrier between the dead and the living is blurred and the lives of the deceased are celebrated. Altars are created in homes to respect loved ones, flowers and favorite foods are presented. Family grave plots are also decorated with marigolds to attract lost souls. Communication and connections between the living and the dead is celebrated with this tradition. On this holiday, death is represented quite figuratively with artistic interpretations. Little sugar calacas (skulls) are ornately bejeweled with colored frosting and offered as gifts to both the living and the dead. The sometimes satirical nature of the calacas and calveras (skeletons) humanizes the experiences of death, recalling of the presence and inevitability of this common human experience.

In the Amazon region of Perú, the presence of Catholic theology mixed with a very strong indigenous belief system, creates fascinating thoughts related to death and dying. Living in the Amazon region implies certain closeness to nature and therefore closeness to the inevitability of death and also rebirth. However, even with this awareness, there has somehow developed a great fear not of dying, but of the dead. I stayed in a community on the Napo River, San Pedro, where I was fortunate enough to form close relationships and discuss the ideology surrounding death. Most people I spoke with had no reservation talking about the concept of death, or common ways in which people in the community had died, but they rarely spoke of the deceased. They believe in a spirit world, in which the dead can still exist amongst the living, so people are careful to not speak of the deceased negatively. There is a cemetery in San Pedro, but it is located very far from the homes in the community, in an attempt to keep any bad spirits separate from the living. These sprits are not malicious like ghosts in an American tale; rather they represent an acknowledgement and respect for the unexplainable and the undefined.

In the dualistic American thought, it can be easy to judge other practices as impractical or even superstitious. However, often these practices bring whole communities unity through common experiences and beliefs, something I feel as American we are losing in our relation to death and dying. I encourage travelers and students abroad to gather information about how the host culture deals with death, dying, and the dead. With that information the culturally informed traveler can synthesize how concepts of death relate to the culture, religion, and history of the host country. Carefully and respectfully initiating a conversation about this topic can be endlessly engaging and reveling, and may even begin to alter the way in which the traveler views the concept of death within his or her own cultural model.